Racism in the United States: Implications for the Helping Professions
Author: Joshua Miller
With this fascinating text, you will start to analyze the social and psychological dynamics of racism and the implications it will carry for you as helping professional. Authors Joshua Miller and Ann Marie Garran investigate the many facets of racism in the United States, examining how racism exists not only outside of us, but inside of us as well. Human service workers must confront and challenge racism in both these areas. Those in the helping professions are ethically obligated to work for a society of fairness and social justice and to provide culturally responsive services to all clients, ensuring equal access and quality. The authors demonstrate that it is insufficient to solely focus on social structures, services, institutional practices, or on changing other people. They show that we must also look within and explore our own biases and blind spots which influence how we view ourselves and those whom we are committed to helping.
Table of Contents:
Preface xviiAcknowledgment xxii
Introduction: Racism in the United States: Implications for the Helping Professions xx
Background: Social Identity and Situating Ourselves 1
Social Identity 4
Situating Ourselves 5
Power, Privilege, and Social Identity 7
Comfort Zones, Learning Edges, Triggers, and Creating a Context for Learning 9
Setting Guidelines 10
Journal Writing 10
Creating a Safe Environment 11
Conclusion 11
Social Identity 11
Exploring Triggers 12
Racial Identity Formation 12
What Is Racism? 13
How Race and Racism Have Been Conceptualized 15
Historical Underpinnings 16
The Western Concept of Race 16
Theories about Racism 17
Ethnicity Theories 18
Race Relations Theories 19
Theories of Prejudice 20
Structural Theories of Racism 23
Critical Race Theory 25
The Contours of Racism 28
Levels of Racism 28
Direct and Indirect Racism 29
Intentional and Unintentional Racism 30
Sites of Racism 30
Frequency and Magnitude of Racism 30
The Spectrum of Racism 30
Intrapersonal 31
Interpersonal 32
Intergroup 32
Institutional 32
Official and State 32
Extreme, State Sanctioned 33
Conclusion 33
Applying the Spectrum of Racism 33
A Brief History of Racism in the United States and Implications for the Helping Professions 34
The Racial Contract 36
Native Americans 36
African Americans 38
Latinos/Hispanics 41
Asian Americans 44
Factors Common to Anti-Immigrant Racism 46
White Ethnic Groups 47
Push and Pull Factors 47
Discrimination Against White Ethnic Groups 48
Ethnicity and Race 49
Liminality 51
Racism and the Helping Professions in Historical Perspective 52
Progressive Era 52
The New Deal 55
The Civil Rights Movement and the Great Society 57
Conclusion 59
Differential Group Experience 60
The Web of Institutional Racism 61
The Nature of the Web of Racism 63
Residential Racism: Neighborhoods and Housing 66
Educational Racism: Public, Private, and Higher Education 68
Employment Racism 70
Racism and Wealth Accumulation and Upward Mobility 71
Environmental and Health Racism 73
Mental Health Racism 75
Access 75
Services Offered 75
Who Provides Treatment 76
The Structure of Services 76
Theoretical Biases 76
Racism in Clinical Encounters 77
Racism in the Criminal Justice System 78
Political Racism 80
Media Racism 83
Implications of the Web of Racism for the Helping Professions 84
Conclusion 86
The Web of Racism and Passports of Privilege 86
Why Is It so Difficult for People with Privilege to See Racism? 87
Consciousness 88
Invisible Knapsacks of Privilege 90
Socialization into White Privilege 91
The Role of the Family 92
The Discourse of Denigration and the Creation of Other 93
Renounced Targets 93
Triangulation 94
Stereotypes and What Can Be Done about Them 95
Sources of Resistance 95
Consequences of Unexamined Stereotypes 96
Confronting Stereotypes 98
Conclusion 101
Personal Audit 101
Confronting Stereotypes 102
Social Identity Formation and Group Membership 103
Identity 104
Racial and Ethnic Identity Theory 106
Multiracial/Biracial Identity Development 110
Theoretical Assumptions 111
Conceptual Expansions of Ethnic and Racial Identity Theory 111
Multidimensional Social Identity Development 112
Assumptions 114
Axes of Social Identity 115
Dimensions 116
Lifespan Context 117
Environmental Context 117
Resolutions/Stances 118
Social Identity Development Phases 119
Targeted Identity 121
Agent Identity 123
Identity and Intergroup Relations 125
What Can Prevent or Alleviate Intergroup Conflict? 127
Implications for the Helping Professions 129
Conclusion 130
Multidimensional Social Identity Exercise 131
Intersectionality, Racism and Other Forms of Social Oppression 134
Common Aspects of Social Oppression 135
Tilly's Model of Categorical Inequalities 135
Bell's Features of Social Oppression 136
Racism and Class Oppression 137
Race and Class Visibility 139
Race, Class, and Politics 141
Interaction of Race and Class Today 142
Racism and Sexism 143
Social Consequences of Racism and Sexism 145
Social Roles and Social Identity 146
Racism and Heterosexism 148
Heterosexism 149
The Interaction of Racism and Heterosexism 151
Immigration and Racism 153
Dynamics of Immigration 154
Significant Legislation 156
Immigration and Racism Today 156
Conclusion 161
Intersectionality 161
Racial Dialogue: Talking about Race and Racism 163
Why Undertake Racial Dialogues? 165
Why Is Racial Dialogue so Challenging? 166
Conducting Successful Racial Dialogues 168
Important Dimensions of Dialogue 171
Models and Stages of Intergroup Dialogue 172
Managing Effective Racial Dialogues 175
Racial Reconciliation and Inter-Racial Justice 180
Recognition 180
Responsibility 180
Reconstruction 180
Reparation 181
Conclusion 181
Preparing for Dialogue 182
Responses to Racism in the Community 183
Millville 184
Snapshots of Millville Residents 185
Racism in Millville 186
The Dynamics of Racism in Communities 187
Structural/Institutional Racism 187
Political Power 188
Social Identity and Group Membership 190
The Phenomenology of Community Racism 191
Social Cohesion and Community Integrity 192
Responding to Racism in the Community 194
Public Dialogue 194
Re-Storying the Community 195
Structural Interventions 196
Generating Social Capital in the Quest for Community Integrity 198
Anti-Racism Work in the Community 200
Assessment and Prioritization 200
Working with Existing Groups and Organizations 202
Working in Coalitions 203
Disruptive Strategies 204
Participatory Efforts 205
Self-Care 206
Conclusion 207
Mapping Your Community 207
Confronting Racism in Agencies and Organizations 209
Terminology 210
Types of Organizations 211
How Racism Is Manifested in Social Service Organizations 212
Policies 212
Interpersonal Relationships 215
Organizational Power 215
Resources Devoted to Anti-Racism 217
Developmental Models of Organizational Change 218
The Process of Becoming an Anti-Racism Organization 222
Mission Statement 223
Project Group 223
Assessment and Prioritization 224
An Anti-Racism Audit 224
Conclusion 225
Anti-Racism Agency Assessment 225
Cross-Racial Clinical Work 226
First Steps 228
Social Identity 228
Culture, Values, and Worldview 229
Power 231
Legacies of Racism Seen in Clinical Work 232
Anger 232
Rage 232
Guilt 233
Shame 233
Stress and Trauma 234
Grief and Mourning 234
Theoretical Biases 235
Barriers to Effective Cross-Racial Clinical Work 236
Internalized Racism 236
Inattention to Power and Privilege 237
Defensive Racial Dynamics 237
Guidelines for Effective Cross-Racial Clinical Work 239
Working with Social Identity 239
Focusing on Strengths 240
Listening and Observing 240
Working with Racial Transference and Counter-Transference 241
Ability to Tolerate and Respond to Strong Affect 242
Situating Clients in Their Historical and Social Context 243
Mirroring and Empathy 243
Bringing up Issues of Race and Racism 244
Responding to Bias 245
Issues for Clinicians Who Identify as White 246
Issues for Clinicians Who Identify as People of Color or Multiracial 247
Supervision and Consultation 247
Structural and Environmental Issues 249
Environment 249
Access 249
Staffing and Board Representation 250
Conclusion 250
Crossed Racial Identity between Worker and Client 250
Exploring Emotions 251
Teaching about Racism 252
Examples 255
Regina 255
Alicia 256
Michael 256
Course and Class Structure 257
Classroom Climate 259
Classroom Safety 260
Classroom Norms 261
Caucus Groups 262
Instructor Self-Awareness 263
Resistance 264
Supporting Anti-Racism Teaching 265
Understanding Students 266
Teaching Strategies and Techniques 267
Exercises 268
Interviewing in Fairs 269
Maintaining Balance 269
Availability of Teachers 270
Feeling Stuck 271
Conclusion 273
Exercise 12.1 273
Dismantling Racism: Creating the Web of Resistance 275
Creating the Web of Resistance 277
Core Values 277
The Intrapersonal Realm: Introspection and Education 279
The Interpersonal Realm: Engaging in Dialogue/Working in Coalitions 280
The Organizational Realm: Creating Anti-Racism Organizations 281
The Community Realm: Creating Inclusive Communities 281
Being Heard: The Realm of Discourse and Culture 281
The Political and Social Realm: Laws, Institutions, and Practices 282
Maintaining Motivation 285
Self-Care 285
Self-Compassion 286
Avoiding Humiliating Others 286
Working Together 287
Taking the Long View 287
Valuing the Process as Well as the Product 287
Growing as Activists 288
Eternal Vigilance 288
Anti-Racism Activist Self-Audit 289
Confronting Racism Without Humiliating Others 289
Study Circles Dialogues 291
Steps to Successful Intergroup Conversation: A Critical-Dialogic Model 292
Issues to Consider When Confronting Institutional Racism 294
Activities Toward Becoming an Anti-Racist Organization 295
Cultural Values and Worldviews 297
Culturally Influenced Behaviors 299
Questions about Cross-Cultural Contacts 300
Further Reading about Cross-Racial/Cultural Clinical Practice 301
Imaginary Letter 303
References 305
Index 320
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Christianity and American Democracy
Author: Hugh Heclo
Christianity, not religion in general, has been important for American democracy. With this bold thesis, Hugh Heclo offers a panoramic view of how Christianity and democracy have shaped each other.
Heclo shows that amid deeply felt religious differences, a Protestant colonial society gradually convinced itself of the truly Christian reasons for, as well as the enlightened political advantages of, religious liberty. By the mid-twentieth century, American democracy and Christianity appeared locked in a mutual embrace. But it was a problematic union vulnerable to fundamental challenge in the Sixties. Despite the subsequent rise of the religious right and glib talk of a conservative Republican theocracy, Heclo sees a longer-term, reciprocal estrangement between Christianity and American democracy.
Responding to his challenging argument, Mary Jo Bane, Michael Kazin, and Alan Wolfe criticize, qualify, and amend it. Heclo's rejoinder suggests why both secularists and Christians should worry about a coming rupture between the Christian and democratic faiths. The result is a lively debate about a momentous tension in American public life.
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